Security Council Action Essay Example for Free

Security Council Action EssayAccording to United States and the 4 eternal members of the Security council, negative Power grants the 5 members an authority essential on upholding global peace. The question at hand claims oppositely, that the prohibit powers of these members were a serious obstacle during the frigidness War (1945-1991). Sources A-E, when analysed, agrees, and in any case disagrees with this claim. Sources A, D and E intrinsically agrees with the notion that shun power were a serious obstacle to action during the parky war. statistical data in Source A shows the number of vetoes exercised, mainly by USA and USSR. This source can be considered as the most reliable source, obviously as statistics show a deeper understanding of the situation at the time. Number of vetoes practiced by these countries, are seen to be concentrated on specific periods, where the tensions mingled with USA and USSR heightened in the Cold War.For instance, the most number of veto es in UN history has been noted between 1946-55, during the period where the Truman doctrine, and the Berlin blockade was in act. Hence, actions by the Security Council failed to conduce effect, since veto delayed or halted supranational action. Source A shows that USA had mapd the veto power most during the Reagan era, from 1976-85. This reflects the use of veto as a tool by the nations to uphold the national interests, such Reagans anti-communist policies to contain communism, as cited in Source D. The source accurately highlights Reagans blind-eyed support to Israel, which again, postponed international action against human-rights and international-treaties violations by Israel. This viewpoint is also supported in Source E, in which two academics explicitly state that global action were taken post due to veto powers of the permanent members.It can be considered largely valid, since academics usually research on the situation in an academic perception, and so is less credibl y to be biased. They have shown two sides to the story. Sources, A, D and E interpreted in this standpoint take cares to indicate that veto powers were indeed a serious obstacle during the Cold war. However, sources D and E discussed above can be deemed flowed for the reasons outlined below. The fact that the number of vetoes shows to be concentrated in specific period connotes the fact that veto power was not a serious obstacle to Security Council action throughout the whole time-period of Cold War. Source A shows the time periods where vetos show little numbers, where Detente or easing of relations between USA and USSR. During these times, number of vetoes seems to show a decline in numbers, reflecting compromise between nations.Moreover, Source D originates from a writer/journalist on Middle-Eastern affairs. The writer may have interests to attract Middle-Eastern readers, and can be deemed to have a sentimental anti-Israeli and anti-American tone to his writing. He mentions the mis-use of veto powers by the West, failing to note the abuse by USSR which had used the veto powers most, evident in Source A. When the sources are analysed in this manner, it seems to discredit the viewpoint in the sources, which support the view. Source B and C disagrees with the claim that veto powers of permanent members trounced a serious hindrance to Security council action, lying on the argument that veto has played a positive role in global action by the Security Council. Source B originates from an academic and seem to have a sound understanding of the workings of the United Nations. Both Sources B and C notes that the public fails to highlight the positive impacts of veto power. Former UN official, cited in source C is observant and can be deemed credible due to his position.This is partially accurate, as veto power has vested a sense of responsibilities in powers. It is straightforward that UNGA, where no veto power exists, had failed miserably on coming with action, but became a debating club of the UN, which is explicitly stated in Source E. Source B also connotes the view that the scope of the effect of Veto power is exaggerated and takes a narrow viewpoint, which cites Taiwan as a permanent member of UNSC during the Cold War, but did not represent the major world powers of the world. This point can be reflected in the Iran-Iraqi war, in which the permanent members did not exercise veto powers. This is also supported in Source C, which highlights the growth in the number of countries in UNSC, which culminated a democratic atmosphere. This is shown in the statistics of source A, which clearly shows a declining trend of the use of veto power, and has not been used throughout the Cold War on posing as a barrier to Security council action.Sources B and C, analysed in this fashion, indicates that veto power was not a serious barrier to global action during Cold War. But the viewpoint of the sources discussed in the above paragraph can be deemed nu ll for the reasons outlined below. Source B mentions the shortcomings of veto-power, and supports the view of sources A, D, and E that veto power has blocked important international resolutions. It also highlights the need for reforms, such as that called upon in the Brahmis report, to make the use of Veto more effective. It is also important to consider that the writer believes in the core aims of UN, and would have an interest to defend the staple framework existing in the United Nations. Similarly, source C originates from an ex-employee of United Nations, who could favour UNs existing structure sentimentally.He fails to mention the use of veto to uphold national interests upheld, especially by USA and USSR during the Cold war, mentioned in Source D. The sources analysed fully in this light, discredits the view that veto power did not pose as a hindrance to action by SC during Cold War. Sources A-E, and the realities of the situation during the given time period, seems to offer a n alternative viewpoint. It is rather true that Veto Power posed as a hindrance to action, shown in sources A, D and E, but not throughout the Cold War, as pointed out in Sources A and E. Veto Powers were concentrated and effectively delayed action mostly during the ignition of cold war, and the Reagan era. The use of Veto power during other times have been unparallel to the times mentioned above, and hence cannot be concluded that it has been a serious threat to Security council action throughout Cold War.

Monopoly - economics Essay Example for Free

Monopoly economics EssayA monopoly exists when it has total entertain over a particular trade and controls the supply and demand for that particular good or service. An oligopoly is a structure of a market in which only a few companies own or control the industry There are natural monopolies in the economy as sound which are necessary to keep the economy progressing. Oligopolies exist because of the control over the supply of a good or service is in the hands of only a select few. They can influence the prices as well as the competition. The first monopolies began over discrepancies over natural resources.Before there was government regulation the resources that were once widely available to the population were controlled by the likes of elite, full-bodied men. These conflicts over natural resources caused the government to regulate the resources by gathering and distributing them to the public. This regulation was put into place to reduce aggression between the company and the customers while equilibrise the supply and demand through different companies. Natural monopolies, on the other hand, do exist. These natural monopolies are those that have been in place for a languish time and cannot be easily replaced.An example of these monopolies is a public utility such as water or electric service. It is much more pricy to use multiple companies for a utility is much more costly as a whole than allowing the monopoly to continue. Waterlines and electrical towers that have been built and maintained for long time would be difficult to destroy or remove from the land. In an oligopoly market, the companies set the prices and work together to control the markets to block new competitors from entering the market. The way these companies make out is through advertising and campaigns to get the most loyalty from the public.By using one another they can create supply and demand for their product or service. With government regulation these few powers can also be controlled like a monopoly would be. From a laissez faire view, monopolies and oligopolies will self-correct and be naturally eliminated. For instance, Microsoft Corporation controlled the operating body market since releasing in 1985. Microsofts operating systems, which once solely dominated the market, at one time compete with Apples MacOS. These two companies competing have now formed an oligopolistic market.In conclusion, it is in the best interest in the government to prevent monopolies from existing. When monopolies exist they decrease the incentive to for other companies to be successful in the market. Keeping the market competitive will drive companies to create new technology and use their inventiveness to improve the economy. Only under certain component part should a monopoly exist and that is of a natural monopoly, and when they do they ought to be regulated by the government. Even though the government can set laws and regulations for oligopolies, it still leaves c lutch of room for monopolistic activities and uneven market share.

Parent Firms of Joint Ventures

P atomic number 18nt Firms of Joint VenturesAre joint-ventures and their pargonnt steadfasts much closely related in impairment of skill-relatedness than in cost of value-chain?AbstractThe indue amongst joint-ventures and their p arnt faithfuls is a fairly stark naked topic of research in the field of variegation. In the process of determining the actual parent firm of a joint-venture out of every last(predicate) option industries, it turned our that both vertical- and skill-relatedness proved to be signifi micklet. The results indicate bring forward that skill-relatedness is more predictive in this process than vertical relatedness and that joint-ventures are more likely to energize parents that have skill overlap to their indigenous activity than industries that do not. These results hold for the entire sample and a subsample of manufacturing firms. An another(prenominal) finding is that joint-ventures and their parents tend to be more closely related in skills than their parents active in the joint-venture. Suggesting that joint-venture are a mechanism to reduce cognitive distance and increase the sorbefacient capacity of the tender cognition being transferred.1. IntroductionDiversification and relatedness in the midst of firms has been astray researched and finds their theoretical foundation in Coase (1937) Penrose (1959) and others. Coase (1937) bottom of the inning be regarded as one of the depression to address the action bes theory, while Penrose (1959) addressed the resource establish conniption of the firm. Both theories invent the basis of m either empirical research to understand more about variegation doings of firms. These theories at that placefore form a basis for further research in diversification and especi every(prenominal)y in the distance between joint-ventures and their parents for this written report.Out put produced by one industry often form the basis of business in other industries. It makes sparing sen se to integrate these activities into already exist activities to improve efficiency, make the company less dependable on their primary activity and expand the company, in order to achieve harvest. Fan and Lang (2000) found this already before in their research about diversification. Firms tend to have minute of arcary segments that are related in terms of in-output. This vertical integration of activities is most likely to occur when facing high food trade performance cost.Neffke and Henning (2010) in any brass investigated diversification behavior of firms using in-output relatedness. Their research however introduced a new measure of skill-relatedness, which turned out to be dominant in predicting diversification behavior of firms. Conform the resource based view, regarding human capital as the prime plus of the firm, their research firstly compared observed job switchers against the predicted job switchers between current industries. Individuals gain, certain specific skills during their working life and can only redeploy this association (know-how) in other industries which posses most degree of association overlap. If this is not the case, reverse will only hurt the individual, since he or she will be not valued for all(a) acquired skills during his working life. This measure of skill-relatedness between industries proved to pass by in-output relatedness and supported the resource based view in diversification activities of firms.While diversification behavior and relatedness is widely researched, this is not the case for the kind between joint-ventures and their parents. A joint-venture is a separate legal entity (Harrigan, 1988) and has at least devil parents, who are in joint-control and reliable for their equity share in the joint-venture. This paper will discuss, why a joint-venture might be preferred over alternatives and how this might influence the distance between joint-ventures and their parent firms. This will provide new insi ghts in the relationship between joint-ventures and their parent firms.In order to investigate the relationship between joint-ventures and their parent firms and testing for dominant agency in this relationship, this paper used a sample of 237 German joint-ventures between 2005-2011 and constructed an average vertical relatedness according to Fan and Lang (2000) for German industries between 2005-2007. It than included the skill-relatedness of Neffke and Henning (2010) based on Swedish labor switchers between 2004-2007. These data al misfortunateed us to make an overview of all joint-ventures and all industries in which it can have their parents. We then tagged the actual parent firms of the joint-ventures with a one and all other industries with a zero, allowing us to run a logit regression with the actual parent firms as our dependent variables. The findings indicate, that the resource based view is the dominant mode in explaining distance between joint-ventures and their parent firms. This provides more insight in the immenseness of close relatedness in terms of skills over other forms of relatedness.In the quest chapter, we start with a theoretical manakin about diversification and argue that the resource based view can be regarded as the most principal(prenominal) in diversification moves. We will then discuss the alternative diversification possibilities and the limitations of diversification. This will be followed by a discussion of the most important strategic motives on joint-ventures choice. These strategic motives and the theoretical theoretical account will be summarized at the end of chapter 2 and we will explain how this all will relate on the distance between joint-ventures and their parents. In chapter 3 we will discuss empirical evidence on diversification and joint-ventures and their implications on our research. Then we will follow with a data discussion and our method of research in chapter 4 and 5. The results and out findings will be presented in chapter 6 and the concluding chapter will discuss our outcomes, provides just about more insight in the distance between both parents active in the joint-venture, limitations, policy implications and future research.2. Theory on diversification an introductionThis paper investigates the distance between joint-ventures and their parents. Before we can have a look at this relation, we start with a theoretical framework about diversification and the implications of this framework for our research. Thereafter, we will explain more about diversification motives and the problems and limitations firms might face when diversifying. We then summarize all this and discuss how this all relate to our evaluate findings on joint-ventures and the relatedness with their parents.2.1 Theoretical framework behind diversification strategiesA theoretical framework behind diversification strategies will be discussed in the coming chapter. This theoretical framework provides more insigh ts in the diversification motives of firms. After these motives have been discussed, we can discuss their influence on the distance between joint-ventures and their parents at the end of chapter 2.2.1.1. Transaction cost theoryThe transaction cost view is a theory of Coase (1937) and Williamson (1975, 1985) and addresses the view that economizing is the core problem of economic organizations. The core of these problems in organisational context beat in the assumptions of incomplete information and self interest seeking firms / people. Incomplete information in contracts implies that it is impossible for individuals and firms to predict all(prenominal) future event, in that respectfore all contracts are incomplete and exposed to uncertainty of future situation not foreseen by firms and individuals. If these future states / conditions change, the incentives for the individuals and firms involved might also change. In other words, there is room for self-interest of individuals. In t he transaction cost theory, these assumptions of bounded rationality and self-interest seeking are paired and as a result there is room for fraud or guile of economic agents. Economic agents are driven by self-interest and the transaction costs theory allows these agents to deceive, disguise and discomfit in order to maximize their self interest. Opportunistic behavior and moral hazard are thus included in the theory of transaction costs.These assumptions are the basis for the theory of transaction cost and have some consequences, especially when it comes to contract modes and thus joint-ventures. Due to bounded rationality and opportunistic behavior of economic agents, all contracts are incomplete (Williamson, 2006). This means, economic agents have an incentive to behave to their own optimal ex post outcome if situations change which cannot be contracted. The second assumption is contract as promise (Williamson, 2006). This assumes that economic agents will fulfill contracts as p romised. However, this will not be obtained if these agents are given opportunistic opportunities. The transaction costs analysis entails an examination of the comparative costs of planning, adapting, and monitoring task completion under alternative governance structures (Williamson, 2006, p. 58). The transaction will bring the canonical unit of analysis and minimizing transaction cost will result in the most cost-effective governance structure. Transactions differ in three ship canal from each other (1) frequency at which transactions recur (2) level of uncertainty to which they are subjected (3) level of asset specificity involved.Since asset specificity is of crucial importance, we elaborate some more about the characteristics of asset specificity. Asset specificity has reference to the degree to which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without sacrifice of oil-bearing value (Williamson, 2006, p. 59). This asset specificity conks of impo rtance in the context of incomplete contracts, while asset specificity can take varied forms (1) physical asset specificity (2) site specificity (3) dedicated asset specificity and (4) human asset specificity.The complexity of a transaction is indeed highly dependent on the asset specificity (k) of the asset and investments in that asset. A supplier can for example use a general purpose engineering science with low asset specificity (k=0) or it might invest in a specialised technology with high asset specificity (k=1). High asset specificity is likely to involve high bilateral dependency between the parties in the transaction. Since the parties involved in the contract become vulnerable of each other, switching is tricky and costly option due to the mutual dependency and the investments done in specific assets. The buyers cannot easily turn to an alternative supplier and the current supplier is highly dependable on the demand of its current buyer. Therefore the higher(prenominal )(prenominal) the asset specificity, the more likely it become that higher contract costs have to be faced. Both parties have more incentives to devise safeguards to protect the investment in the transaction if asset specificity is high. However, if there is low asset specificity (k=0) and we thus have a general purpose asset, contract are easily monitored and marketplace transactions will be preferred.Back to the diversification decision, minimizing transaction costs is regarded of crucial importance for the choice in governance mode. This implies that firms choose between a wholly owned subsidiary, a simple market transaction or a hybrid made, as a joint-venture for example. This trade- rancid between a joint-venture and other governance modes has been widely researched. Hennart (1991) for example found that Nipponese firms start joint-ventures with U.S. counterparts to combine intermediate inputs when they are subjected to high market transactions costs. This paper uses a relat edness in terms of in-output and can therefore measure the distance in terms of the use of intermediate products between industries. The influence on joint-ventures and partner distance will be discussed at the end of chapter 2. At this localize of the paper, it is however important to understand that high relatedness in the use of intermediate products is likely to be caused due to high transaction costs. This would imply that if diversification has a high level of relatedness in value-chain and are thus closely relatedness in terms of vertical relatedness, this is most likely caused by high transaction costs and supports the transaction costs view of diversification..2.1.2. Knowledge and resource based viewIn the resource based view, fellowship (know-how) is regarded as the most important production factor deep down the firm. The origin of the resource based view goes back to the work of Penrose (1959), who inspired the discussion of the resource based view of the firm and the importance of resources to achieve firm growth. Penrose stated that the firm is a collection of productive resources (human and non-human) under administrative coordination and authoritative communication that produces goods and services for sale in the market for a profit (Penrose, 1959, p. xvii). The administrative coordination and authorities communication define the boundaries of the firm (Penrose, 1959, p. xvii). The firm specific human resources are regarded as the most important of all resources within the firm. Without these human companionship, there can be no operating firm. As a result, the firm cannot make decisions, long-term planning, run operations and it can certainly not make any expansions.From this point of view Penrose (1959) indentified two major causes of firm growth. First of all, causes external to the firm and secondly those causes that are sexual to the firm. External causes for firm growth, as capital constraints, cannot be fully understood without an ex amination of the nature of the firm itself (Penrose, 1959, p. 532). We may therefore conclude that firm growth is endogenous to the firm this is a result of two reasons mentioned by Penrose (1959). In order to execute plans and strategic action, human capital is required. After completion of the advise/action, managerial resources will be released with increased acquaintance. These resources gained experience and knowledge during the succession of the expansion and can be redeployed at alternative use after the time of the expansion. The redeployed individuals with an increased knowledge and skills might improve efficiency and organization of the firm, but might also be able to development new or specialized services. Depending on the expansion, individuals involved might also gain unique knowledge of their experience this is particularly true for certain forms of tacit knowledge, which are more difficult to transmit.The theory of firm growth of Penrose (1959) has been regarded a s one of the earliest contributions to the resources based view of the firm, stressing the importance of knowledge as the key production factor within a firm. The drive of firms for growth, is a drive for new knowledge that is not accessible to the firm before their diversification. However, the motives and goals of each diversification differ and so do the resources possessed by each firm in a diversification. These differences and similarities in knowledge are of crucial importance in the resource based view, where acquiring new knowledge is the ultimate goal for achieving growth. Acquiring knowledge comes with certain problems the fundamental paradox of knowledge and the difficulty arising from transferring tacit knowledge are two of those problems. In the fundamental paradox of information it is extreme difficult to watch out the value of the knowledge for the buyer of the knowledge, which causes high contract costs. Since it is impossible for the buyer of knowledge to estimate ex ante the characteristics of what is being bought. On the other hand, if the seller of the knowledge provides this information, he will be revealing important information and transferring his know-how redundant of charge (Arrow, 1959).If the targeted knowledge, is a certain know-how which cannot be patented and protected against spillovers to competitive firms and other industries it become far more difficult. Certain types of knowledge cannot be put on paper and granted a patent. Firms experiences in manufacturing, distribution, and country-specific knowledge, knowledge of markets, customers and especially high educated employees cannot be patented but are of crucial importance of a firms success in the resource based view. This type of knowledge that cannot embody specifications, designs and drawings, but instead is embedded in the individual is called tacit knowledge. (Polanyi, 1959 Hennart, 1988, p. 366). These individual characteristics of experience and social nature make transfer, coordination and spread of knowledge between firms, extreme complex and difficult (Lam, 2006). The transfer and spread of this tacit knowledge is one of the difficulties when facing diversification decisions. The transfer and spread of this tacit knowledge can be done in different alliance forms, which will be discussed later in this paper. However, for now, it is important to know that diversification is undertaking to gain new knowledge, which must be for same part related to the knowledge of the firm. This is the case since the new resources must be redeployed at alternative use after a project, which might be a joint-venture for example. As for distance in diversification, higher skill-relatedness and thus diversification activities that are more closely related in skills stresses the importance of the resource based view.2.1.3. Portfolio management theoryA third and final theory behind diversification motives is the portfolio theory of Markowitz (1952). Diversificatio n decisions of firms are important decisions taken by firms management in order to maximize the expected returns of their portfolio of investments. These investors are the shareholders of the firm and have a claim on the residual value of the company assets, when debt has been paid. In order to maximize this expected return of the firm dramatic shares, the law of large numbers will ensure that the actual yield of the portfolio will be almost the same as the expected yield. In any case, holding a diversified portfolio would be preferred over all non-diversified portfolios (Markowitz, 1952). Increasing variance in your portfolio would mean an increase in the number of projects, since each project would be successful / unsuccessful at a certain probability, which is referred to as risk. Holding a large variety, in other words, betting on more than one horse, increases your probability on having a winning project. The portfolio management theory suggests that diversification tends to t ake place in activities that are unrelated to the primary activity of the firm. If this is the case, diversification activities (such as a joint-venture) would be unrelated to the primary activity of the firm. There would be a large distance between the firm and its diversification activities, while transaction costs and the resource based view are stressing the importance diversification in more closely related activities, although for different motives.2.2 Different diversification alternativesIn all theories discussed, the master(prenominal) driver for diversification is in order to achieve growth. Either, by minimizing transaction costs in the transaction costs economy or by diversification of risk, which increases the probability of a winning innovation. In all these theories is explained how they might influence the distance between diversification activities. Is there however any limit to firm growth in their challenge to innovate and to expand?According to Penrose (1959) th ere is no limit on the size of a firm, however the growth of the firm has some limits it can reach. In the Hercules Powder Company case study Penrose claimedGrowth is governed by a creative and dynamic interaction between a firms productive resources and its market opportunities. Available resources limit expansion unused resources (including technological and entrepreneurial) stimulate and largely determine the direction of expansion. While product demand may exert a predominant short-term influence, over the long term any distinction between supply and demand determinants of growth becomes arbitrary (Penrose, 1959, p.1)How does this reflect to diversification strategies? Penrose (1959) distinguished between different areas of diversification. The firm can be divided into different productive activities, that contain of machines, processes, skills and materials, all closely and complementary associated in the production process, which Penrose (1959) calls the production/technology base. The firm now faces the decision to diversify into a new market using the existing technology base. It might prefer entering an existing market using a new technology base, which is referred to as horizontal/complementary expansion. The last scenario would be to enter a new market using a new technology base. As described above, the ability of a firm to expand and grow is limited by its internal resources, from which human resources is regarded as the most important. Diversification increases the creative and dynamic interaction of a firm and its resources. either these forms of diversification have implications on the expected distance between the diversification activities and thus joint-ventures and our research. Entering a new market using a new technology would probably have a larger distance in terms of skills from its primary activity than entering a new market with an existing technology. In this latest case, the technology and specific knowledge can be partially redep loyed at alternative use, while this is not the case in the first alternative.The main implication from Penrose (1959) famous work is that firms diversify in order to achieve growth. According to Penrose (1959) the resource based view of the firm is the dominant view in order to achieve this growth by diversification. This would suggest that the distance between diversification activities would be more closely related in terms of skills and less closely in vertical relatedness, used as a measure for the transaction costs theory. If diversification is undertaken in order to diversify risk, conform the portfolio management theory diversification activities would not be related at all.2.3 Limits on diversification and diversification distance?There are different diversification forms as discussed in the previous chapter. It is important to understand that firm growth is limited by its human capital (Penrose, 1959). A firm should therefore guardedly choose its diversification activiti es. A clear understanding of these limits and where these limits depend on is extremely important to understand the distance between firms diversification activities.Since this implicitly answers the question, to what utmost firms diversify and is there a limit on the distance between partners and their diversification activity? Cohen and Levinthal (1990) discuss the absorptive capacity of a firm, which indicates the ability of a firm to recognize the value of new, external information, assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends, which is critical to its innovative capacity (Cohen and Levinthal (1990), p. 128). This absorptive capacity puts limits on the commercialization of new knowledge and boundaries on diversification. Cohen and Levinthal (1990) assume that a firms absorptive capacity and the individual absorptive capacities of its employers are largely a function of the firms level of antecedent related knowledge. Earlier research suggest that absorptive capacity might be a byproduct of a firms RD investments and others suggest that firms can also invest this instant in absorptive capacity while investing in specialized education/training. The key to absorptive capacity is that organizations needs prior related knowledge to assimilate and use new knowledge for growing. This is very important for the resource based view in our paper, since this implies that diversification activities of firms should be related in terms of skills. Since, the higher the prior knowledge in ones memory, the higher their ability to acquire new knowledge and the ability to recall and use that knowledge. What is often the case in organizations and especially expected in joint-ventures is the transfer of learning skills across bodies of knowledge that are organized and expressed in similar ways. Mowery et al. (1996) indicated that joint-ventures are the most efficient alliance form for transferring tacit knowledge, which could certainly human specific skills. As a conseque nce, experience or performance on one learning task may influence and improve performance on some subsequent learning task (Ellis, 1965). Cohen and Levinthal (1990) make two important assumptions about knowledge, important for diversification strategies. Firstly, knowledge is cumulative and secondly, learning performance is greatest when the object of learning is related to what is already known (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990, p. 131). This implicit that learning is more difficult in novel domains, in other words radical exploration of new ideas, products, technologies and standards. Diversification might offer an advantage, since with diversification comes a wider knowledge base and as a results an increasing probability that the new knowledge is already / partially known to the organization.The absorptive capacity of an organization however, does not only exist off the aggregated absorptive capacity of its individuals, but also on the ability to exploit this knowledge. Cohen and Levin thal (1990) mention there is a trade-off between high levels of absorptive capacity of an organization and the ability to exploit this. They describe this as a trade-off between inward-looking (specialization) versus outward-looking (diversify) trade-off, where excessive dominance by one or the other will be suboptimal. Exploitation can surmount been seen as specialization of old familiar ideas and certainties in organisational learning, while exploration can best be described as the invention of new technologies, standards, products or ideas in an organization. Cohen and Levinthal (1990) discuss also the importance for innovation of close relationship with both buyers and suppliers, suggesting a vertical relatedness would be beneficial for innovation performance. In the trade-off described, Cohen and Levinthal (1990) suggest that to the keep an effective, creative utilization of new knowledge a portion of prior knowledge should be closely related with a the firm new knowledge, and another part should be fairly diverse, although still related. If this is the case, firm diversification activities should be closely related in terms of skills supporting the resource based view of the firm.Why is it important to have both creative utilization and a portion of prior knowledge is best described by abut (1991), who distinguishes between exploration and exploitation. Returns of exploration are systematically less certain than those of exploitation (March, 1991), this might influence the choice for diversification for the long term however, exploration has long run positive return although this outcome is certainly not ever so the case in the short run. Exploration activities therefore capture much more risk taking, uncertainty, variation, flexibility, discovery and innovation than exploitation. Exploitation is more focused on production, choice, efficiency, marketing, costs and benefits (March, 1991).The importance of exploration is best described in a model of mut ual learning in an closed organization and its personnel in it (March, 1991). The organization is regarded as a storage of knowledge (consisting of procedures, norms, rules and tacit assets) and the organization, accumulate knowledge over time by learning from their personnel. Individuals (personnel) however, are socializing the organizational beliefs, which are diffused to individuals through various forms of instruction, indoctrination, and exemplification (March, 1991, p. 74). This mutual learning approach between organizations and individuals has implications for the choice between exploitation and exploration in organizations and has therefore consequences for the short-run and long-run incentives. In this model of mutual learning organizational code is affected by the beliefs of their personnel, the other way around, the individuals are influenced by the organizational code / norm. Important to know is, that individuals can not influence each other, the influence each other th rough the organizational code. What will happen in this closed model? In this organization, each adjustment in beliefs is served to eliminate the difference between the organizational code and the individual beliefs. If the individuals over time become more knowledgeable about the code, they become also more homogeneous with respect to knowledge and in the end will find an residuum. In this equilibrium the individuals beliefs share the same organizational code. It is therefore important to keep a portion of new knowledge in order to increase the organizational code.March (1991) also describes a second model, evaluating the role of personnel turnover in the organization and upthrow purlieu are considered. The length of service of an individual in an organization has a positive effect on the knowledge of the individual and therefore also a positive effect on the average knowledge of the individuals. A recruit therefore has a negative effect on the average knowledge of the individua ls. The role of turnover on the organization knowledge is more complicated and is a problem of learning rates versus turnover rates. As described in model of mutual learning the strength of the recruit is, the renewing in knowledge, since the recruit posses on average less knowledge than the individual it replaces. Long serving individuals, on average know more, but their knowledge is already reflected in the organizational code over time and therefore they are less likely to contribute to the organizations knowledge base. Now consider environmental turbulence to the organization, this can be the case of processes involving lags in adjustment rates. Consider an organization without personnel turnover, in this organization the beliefs reflected by the individual and these beliefs do not change, although the environment is changing. After some time the organizational code is systematically degraded through changes in reality and a much lower equilibrium is reached. Organizations with a moderate personnel turnover however, are resistant to these environmental shocks and adjust to the new knowledge of the recruits (diversified knowledge).March (1991) extent this model of competitive ecology in a model to compete for scarce resources and opportunities. Assuming the performance of a firm is a measure of the average value (x) and some measure of discrepancy (v), which are normally distributed. An increase in both will increase the probability to gain competitive advantages over competitors. In this part there consist a trade-off between an increase in the mean and the variance. Which supports earlier literature, that diversification is undertaken to gain excess to new knowledge to some extent, but is expected to be related to prior knowledge of the firm. March (1991) conclude that exploration firms compete far more on variance than exploitation firms.2.4 Implications and differences between the theories discussedThe main difference between the management portfolio t heory and the resource based view and the transaction costs view is that the management portfolio expect that diversification tends to take place in unrelated industries, while this is not the case for the other two theories, although at different level of relatedness. The resource based view stresses the importance of knowledge gain and the benefits of this new knowledge in diversification. Transaction costs theory however focuses more on the cost side of the transaction.Leaving the transaction costs as basic unit of analysis to determine an appropriate alliance form, which will minimizes the transaction costs of the firm. According to Wang (2007), a firm shoul

Natural Law Essay

Natural Law EssayThe theory of Natural Law was put forward by Aristotle but champi unrivaledd by Aquinas (1225-74). It is a deductive theory it starts with raw material principles, and from these the right course of action in a particular situation can be deduced. It is deontological, facial expression at the intent behind an action and the disposition of the act itself, not its outcomes.Traditional intrinsic equity is based on value judgements, which emanate from both(prenominal) absolute source e.g. Gods revealed word. However the term pictorial rightfulness of nature lacks a precise definition, and thither is very little agreement, even among experts or prop binglents of immanent fairness theory nigh its application to specific, complex, moral, or court-ordered issues.1The unwritten body of universal moral principles that underlie the ethical and legal norms by which humanity expect is sometimes evaluated and governed. Natural truth is often contrasted with positiv e law, which consists of the written rules and regulations enacted by government. The term immanent law is derived from the Roman term jus naturale. Adherents to natural law ism are k directn as naturalists.The major opp mavinnt to legal positivism as a conception of the nature of law goes by the label natural law theory. Natural law theory is probably not the outflank name for this scan its a bit of a historical accident that this view in the philosophy of law came to substantiate this name but it is the traditional label.2And I impart not try to displace it here. Aquinas says that the principles of practical tenability-that is, those principles that declare us how to act reasonably-both are Gods law for our conduct and are knowledgeable by nature, even apart from special divine revelation. So the principles of practical rationality are both law and natural, and hence are natural law. Beca uptake Aquinas says that human law must be in accordance with reason and he sometim es says that human law must be in accordance with reason and he sometimes says that human law must be in accordance with natural law. The label is unfortunate because there are some writers who believe that the principles of rationality or morality place a constraint on legality, but who do not believe that these principles of law rationality or morality are God-given law. These writers are called natural law theorists even though they do not, strictly speaking, believe in natural law.There are important objections to be made to Aquinass theory of natural law. O Connor rightly identifies the main one Aquinas fails to explain just how the specific moral rules which we need to guide out conduct can be shown to be connected with allegedly axiomatic principles.3But the objection that Aquinass account of natural law purposes an illicit inference from is to ought is quite unjustified.What are the principles of natural law?There is aset of basic practical principles which indicate the basi c forms of human flourishing as graves to be pursued and realized, and which are in one way or another utilise by everyone who considers what to do, however high-risk his conclusions and aset of basic methodological requirements of practical reasonableness (itself one of the basic forms of human flourishing) which distinguish sound from unsound practical thinking and which, when all brought to bear, provide the criteria for distinguishing between acts that (always or in particular circumstances) are reasonable-all-things-considered (and not merely relative-to-a-particular purpose) and acts that a reasonable-all-things-considered, i.e. between ways of acting that are morally right or morally wrong-thus enabling one to formulate aset of general moral standards.4Naturalists believe that natural law principles are an inherent part of nature and exist regardless(prenominal) of whether government recognizes or enforces them. Naturalists further believe that governments must incorporat e natural law principles into their legal systems before justice can be achieved. There are three schools of natural law theory divine natural law, secular natural law, and historical natural law.Divine natural law represents the system of principles believed to nominate been revealed or inspired by God or some other supreme and eldritch being. These divine principles are typically reflected by authoritative religious writings such as Scripture. Secular natural law represents the system of principles derived from the physical, biological, and behavioural laws of nature as perceived by the human intellect and elaborated through reason. Historical natural law represents the system of principles that has evolved over time through the dumb accretion of custom, tradition, and experience. Each school of natural law influenced the Founding Fathers during the nascent years of U.S. law in the eighteenth century and continue to influence the decision-making lick of state and federal cour ts today.Religious studies are flourishing again. Most scholars were convinced that religion definitely belonged to the past and were of interest only to a tiny collection of specialists. Today religious studies are pursued by a host of people in a range of departments. Because of the relevance of cultural issues to the contemporary world, religions maintain moved from the periphery to the very centre of public and academic concern. Their startling resurgence has given rise to the growing number of studies that explore this phenomenon in fresh, raw(a) ways.5Among the umteen publications that have appeared recently, I would like to draw attention to a volume edited by Mark C. Taylor, which appeared in 1998. Entitled Critical wrong for Religious Studies.6It describes the field in terms of 22 notions some of them old acquaintances, others new comers from belief to writing. Each article analyses the theoretical value of one of these notions, examining it in a particular religious traditions.7Another volume that appeared recently Guide to the study of Religion8likewise explores such notions as classifications, comparison, and gender 31 notions in all. Examining the concepts in the two volumes. I was struck by the absence of both history and tradition from each ironically, only modernity has survived. As it happens, though, the essay on modernity by Gustavo Benavides in Critical Terms is not a bad substitute for the two missing.9In Ireland at present there is certain unease in an increasingly secular culture in relation to its linkages with religion and the law of god. Quinn has also stated that as natural law force the tribunal into novel fields, and as secularisation broke down the old conventions revealing deep divisions over first principles, it became harder to credibly assert that there was one right way and that the courts were uniquely positioned to identify it10Despite the problems associated with a disenchanted secular society, there is also the added problem of ascertaining what natural law actually means. It is submitted that, a feature of most of the judicial references to natural law or natural rights under the Constitution is that they assume that there is a general consensus some the face-to-face identity operator of the natural law. However, the concept of natural rights has a variety of meanings11The use of natural law is problematic because in fact there is no general consensus about the identity of the political, moral, judicial and theological theory being named, and there is no guarantee either that the constitution will in some sense utility byrelying on such a theory. Hogan and Kelly have also stated that, Judicial invocation of such an un-distilled concept of natural law in the circumstance of review presents the obvious danger that invalidation of legislation passed by the Oireachtas might not always be seen to be based on objective, ascertainable criteria12The difficultness of interpreting the natur al law unmatchable of the issues often highlighted by opponents of the use of natural law is that it is ambiguous and consequently very difficult to interpret. Von Prondzynski notes, There is a general aversion among lawyers at having to deal with something they cannot immediately define.13The difficulties with the use of natural law cannot be denied. It has been argued, there are two entirely different kinds of natural law theories14, one secular and one based on religion. Murphy also noted that, while the state may be Christian, this does little to friend define natural law as Christian groupings fundamentally disagree as to what the divine law actually is.15However, this difficulty is not insuperable and should not be treated as so. It is clear from the constitution and from judicial decisions such as that of Justice Kenny in the Ryan case, that a Christian type of natural law is advocated rather than a secular natural law theory. The issue of what exactly this means and how it can be applied to complex cases is more difficult to resolve. Von Prondzynski believes that natural law in its legal sense, as seen by the Constitution has nothing whatever to do with the imposition on us all of a concise set of religious rules as propounded by the Churches.16The difficulties of natural law interpretation could be considerably reduced by the construction of some form of guidelines for the terrace to use. These would help the judiciary to define the natural law and to interpret it accordingly.It is submitted that the use of natural law by the judiciary in the 1950s and 1960s was less contentious owing to the nature of society that existed at the time. Ireland during this period in history was relatively homogeneous in terms of its core values, and as such doing the right thing was not necessarily perceived as being undemocratic when everyone knew what the right thing was.In Ireland at present there is certain unease in an increasingly secular culture in relation to its linkages with religion and the law of god. Quinn has also stated that as natural law displace the judiciary into novel fields, and as secularisation broke down the old conventions revealing deep divisions over first principles, it became harder to credibly assert that there was one right way and that the courts were uniquely positioned to identify it.17Despite the problems associated with a disenchanted secular society, there is also the added problem of ascertaining what natural law actually means. It is submitted that, a feature of most of the judicial references to natural law or natural rights under the Constitution is that they assume that there is a general consensus about the identity of the natural law. However, the concept of natural rights has a variety of meanings.18The use of natural law is problematic because in fact there is no general consensus about the identity of the political, moral, judicial and theological theory being named, and there is no guarantee eith er that the constitution will in some sense arrive at byrelying on such a theory. Hogan and Kelly have also stated that, Judicial invocation of such an un-distilled concept of natural law in the background of review presents the obvious danger that invalidation of legislation passed by the Oireachtas might not always be seen to be based on objective, ascertainable criteria.19One of the main questions therefore that emerge from the debate regarding the use of natural law is the extent to which natural law can provide guidance to members of the court in deciding entire issues. It can be taken for granted that in a parliamentary democracy the judicial review procedure as provided for in the constitution is necessary to defend the rights of individuals. Therefore inevitably the burden of reason the rights of individuals against oppressive legislation falls in part, on members of the court.20Thus while defending the rights of individuals may be a prerogative of the judiciary, one is forced to ask Can such a prerogative ever be justified by reference to principles of natural law? And if so can such a right ever be justified in overriding the democratic will of the people? The answer is a clear noWhile there is widespread acceptance that the task of settle is to interpret the Constitution, during this dish up it is necessary for the judiciary to rely on the text, without reliance on sources from outside the four corners of the Constitution. Whether or not the judiciary should supplement the text cuts to the very heart of what it means to have a written Constitution, enforced by an independent judiciary, in a democratic state. As such the apparent death of natural law should not necessarily be seen as a bad thing if it results in more consistent, truly impartial, reasoned judgments from the judiciary.Proponents of natural law often argue that the use of natural law far from being a licence for unlimited government and a roving judiciary, natural rights and natur al law arguments are the best defence of liberty and of limited government.21However despite such sentiments, the decision in Re Information22, like all previous Article 26references will not be overturned. What the decision in Re Information makes clear is that natural law cannot be relied upon to invalidate any explicit training of the Constitution, however it is also suggested that it does not address what residual role natural law plays in the constitutional order.23It would appear therefore that a deep gent exists between concepts of popular sovereignty and natural law. When push comes to shove the Irish judiciary have preferred the former to the latter. Therefore the politics of normative alternative through the democratic process is open and not bounded by fixed notions of natural law.24The Future of the Natural Law in Irish implicit in(p) Jurisprudence Is Natural Law Dead?The future of natural law in Irish Constitutional jurisprudence is currently far from clear. It woul d appear from the sovereign Court decisions in recent years that for the foreseeable future natural law will not play a significant role in constitutional jurisprudence.25While the recent demise of natural law has been described as one of the great tragedies of the bitter debate on abortion26, it would be wrong to conclude that the Regulation of Information Bill 1995 signalled the death of natural law.27They suggest that the natural law component remains a significant attention to interpretation,28although it will remain inferior to the canon of harmonious interpretation. Although not dead, natural laws place in Irish constitutional jurisprudence has been radically altered. The doctrine now has a reduced significance in constitutional interpretation and a future growth in stature remains unforeseeable. Its application has led to many difficulties. However, the use of natural law isnot without benefits and its diminution and potential evisceration by the judiciary mayprove detriment al. Natural law was invoked over an wide period to protect therights of citizens not expressly provided for in the constitution, including the right tobodily integrity, the right to travel, the right to earn a livelihood, the right to privacyand the right of chafe to the courts. It remains to be seen if the Supreme Courtsdecision will prevent the recognition of further unremunerated rights.Natural law will remain a significant upkeep in constitutional interpretation, however it is submitted that it will not be as influential as it has been in the past.In order to be really effective, the natural law must have its first home not in the judiciary, but in the population at large and in a constitutional democracy this means in the populace as represented in legislatures. That legislation and not adjudication should be the primary forum for the application of the natural law seems to have been recognized by no less an authority than St. Thomas Aquinas.29Here it is noteworthy that the application of natural law by Irish judges has largely been in the context of fundamental rights jurisprudence, for it is precisely when the substantive structures and ethos of community begin to break down that legal issues become primarily issues of rights.30So here the debate over natural law may ironically be a 178 Catholic Social Science Review function of the secularization process itself and suggests the larger question of the extent to which cultural problems lend themselves to judicial answers. Is it a coincidence that the increase in the activity of constitutional courts in the realm of personal rights, an increase which visible on a global scale, is taking place in a time of increasing secularization and cultural dislocation?31 wherefore is it that the natural law doctrine, despite its flaws and inconsistencies, has had such an influence in the history of European thought? Kelsens answer is that natural law satisfies a deeply-rooted need of the human mind, the need for ju stification. To justify the subjective value judgements which emerge from the emotional element of his consciousness, man tries to present them as objective principles by transferring to them the dignity of truth, to make them propositions of the said(prenominal) order as statements about reality. Hence he pretends to deduce them from reality, which implies that value is imminent in reality.32This has a comforting corollary belief in natural law enables a person to obey a civil law, not because he is compelled to do so by the civil power, but because of the laws intrinsic value. But, as we have learned, at the heart of Kelsonss argument lies the contention that value is not imminent in reality. Natural law nevertheless strikes a chord with a long-lasting and deep-seated need felt by mankind the need for certainty, for the existence of truths that are absolute and unchanging.33For writers down the ages it has been a quality of natural law that it is double-dyed(a) and universal. Finnis believes that the principles of natural law hold good, as principles, however extensively they may be overlooked, misapplied or defied and however little they may be recognised. They would hold good just as the mathematical principles of accounting hold good even where, as in medieval banking community, they are unknown and misunderstood.34

Focusing on A Child’s Right To Play

Focusing on A Childs Right To figure outThe focus of this round off ordain boil down on addressing the issues and c at a timepts skirt the subject of Outdoor Provision in the Early Years setting. The review exit begin by looking at the current publications turn outing the suggestion that interpret has been identified as an congenital part of early puerility rearing, touching on recent educational belles-lettres as well as a look at past theorists views and how this has affected early long time practice to the present day. The review will accordingly follow on from this with the main body of the essay discussing the books and seek on the alfresco(a) surroundings within the early years setting focal window pane on the positive and negative atomic number 18as surrounding the topic. In order to accomplish this, the review will analyse and synthesise current educational literature surrounding the main issues and ideas on the out of doors. In relation to the out-of- doors, the review will withal touch upon issues raised regarding the relationship in the midst of the open-air(prenominal) environs and boys attainment and the grandeur of equal opportunities within early years settings. The review will conclude with reference to in all of the findings from recent educational literature relating to the outsides and the issues and ideas surrounding it. piddle away is the highest expression of human increment in childhood, for it alone is the free expression of what is in a childs soul(Fredrich Froebel n/d)IntroductionIt has been continually reported and researched, that we expect besides much too soon from our unseasoned children today. Early Years Practitioners be under pressure from establishment statistics and league tables to conform to a formal genius of teaching too early, but how do we resist top down syllabus pressure? The time given to childhood is continually being decay as children are rushed towards the adult world. Rather t han being receivers of information, young children need to enjoy the get word of discovery, so that they nooky apply knowledge, concepts and skills, and take mensural endangerments in a structured rather than a directed environment. In all activities children need to play. (Warden 1999).Have we forgotten round the importance of childhood, the importance of Play? Surely it is impossible to stop children from playing? Such a strong vivid drive must acquire a function.The disappearance of childhood is a contemporary phenomenon arising from a disappearing conceiveing of the true needs of early childhood (Lynne Oldfield, 2001 5)Play has always been a topic under debate among educators and not only in the present day, as on that point are also vast amounts of research from past educational theorists that two substitute and challenge the idea. psyche once wrote that defining play is like looking for crocks of g obsolescent at the end of a rainbow, which seems like an appropriat e definition. Play has been defined in sundry(a) different ways by different theorists and through and throughout history philosophers and theorists hold in watched and noused play. As far back as the 18th century Froebel was highly apprised of the voice of environmental influences in determining the full realisation of the childs potential and his respect for childrens play was profound Playing is the self education of the child (Froebel 1815). too in the 18th century Rousseaus work had its emphasis on freedom for children which was later criticised for encouraging parents to acknowledge their children to be noisy, undisciplined and unkempt. His writing was said to be responsible for this provoking, obstinate, insolent, impudent, arrogant generation.Almost 300 years later this sounds all too familiar. By letting our children play are we creating destructive members of the community or are we helping them to become independent, confident and capable learners? Susan Isaacs the ory would definitely agree with the latter of the two statements, in the 1920s and 30s. Isaacs developed both a curriculum and a means of understanding young childrens development ground on her observations of their play. She wrote that, Play is a means of living and of understanding life. Neuroscientist, Susan Greenfield, (1996) also lends endorse to this view when she writes, Play is fun with serious con dates. The early years writer, Tina Bruce, also defines play as something involving choice and firsthand experience. ( Tina Bruce 2001) .Although research about play based acquirement has been rife since the 17th century, it is only within the last few years that the government has prize its importance and incorporated it into the curriculum as an essential part of early years, Playing allows children to develop a sense of well being develops their emotional responses and improves their intersomebodyal skills. It involves exploration and creativity, helping children think in a flexible manner, developing the creative process, language skills and reading and problem skills. (DCSF, 2008).Government documentation has not only highlighted the importance of a play based curriculum but also the importance of the outdoor environment. It states that all settings should reserve continuous outdoor provision for all children (EFYS 2008). It is here that we move on to the importance of the outdoors as an extension to the play within the early years. Young children should be outdoors as much as indoor(a)s and need a well-designed, well-organised and incorporated indoor-outdoor environment, preferably with indoors and outdoors available simultaneously (The Shared Vision Values for Outdoor Play in the Early Years, 2004)Drake looks at the work of other(a) early years professionals and she identifies the outside area as a valuable resource that should be viewed as an extension of the whole setting in which all other areas of provision sens be set up (Drake 20013). L ater these findings were also supported by Helen Bilton in an early years education talking where she stated, The outdoor area is a complete discipline environment, which caters for all childrens needs cognitive, linguistic, emotional, social and personal. It should be available every day alongside the indoor company and throughout the year. (Helen Bilton 2010). Claire Warden is also of the same opinion as the author of Nurture through Nature, uniting together play and the outdoors Play is the means through which children find stimulation, well being and happiness, and is the means through which they grow personally, intellectually and emotionally. Play is the most important thing for children to do outside and the most pertinent way of offering learning outdoors.(Warden 2008)The outdoor environmentIn Sept 2008 the EYFS was introduced as a government insurance document which stated, A rich and varied environment supports childrens learning and development. It gives them conf idence to explore and learn in secure and safe, yet challenging indoor and outdoor spaces (EYFS Commitment 33).The debate about the outdoors and its importance within the early years has been discussed widely and is rarely out of the media. Not only has this been identified as an essential part of childhood education since the 18th Century but there had also been extensive research and literature produced to confirm its value and not just of opinion, but scientific research. The debate is not any more(prenominal) about whether or not the outdoors has a positive effect on childhood as this question has already been answered in abundance, but we still have to question how and why does it have a positive effect on childrens early years education and what are the potential benefits for learning outdoors Nurture through Nature?.What better way to get a good perspective of the benefits of the outdoors than to study the children themselves? Young children are spending increasing amoun ts of time in educational settings which then set ups a big responsibility on the early years practitioners and the learning opportunities they provide, but what do children think about the outdoor environment? In conjunction with the Every Child Matters document which maintains an emphasis on listening to children, a research project, Mosaic was initiated to find out. It was found through observations that children thought that their outdoor environment was very important. In surveys with young children, particularly those carried out to inform the development of the Early Years Foundation leg (EYFS) framework, being outdoors always comes out at the top of their priorities and favorite things in nursery.The special nature of the outdoors seems to fulfill the way young children want to play, learn and develop in so many ways. Perhaps this is why children love to be outside so much It certainly gives a strong rationale and justification for developing rich outdoor provision and pro viding as much access to it as possible.Creating environments to support boys learningThe importance of the outdoor environment in the early years has already been firmly recognised, but some facial gestures of it in particular seem to support boys more in their natural learning styles. One of the issues raised within the early years over the last few years has been the underachievement of boys compared to girls. There have been various reasons addressed and researched but something which comes up frequently in current literature is the question are we proviso the correct environments to support boys styles of learning? As a result of this apparent lack of achievement, research had been undertaken to find out the ways in which boys learn and there has been strong evidence to suggest that learning and playing in the outdoor environment will help in raising boys attainment.Bilton supports the view by stating, Boys brains develop in a different sequence to girls and this could have some bearing on teaching and learning. Boys develop concepts of movement and space first so it makes sense for teaching and learning to take place in an environment such as the outdoors (Bilton 200273). Boys are no less able than girls, so it seems to fall at the feet of the professionals in the early years. Are practitioners knowledgeable enough about the differing gender learning styles to offer a fair and accessible curriculum to all children? In the early years al-Qaida stage booklet it states that, All children, irrespective of ethnicity, culture or religion, home language, family background, learning difficulties or disabilities, gender or readiness should have the prospect to experience a challenging and enjoyable programme of learning and development .(EYFS Statutory Guidance 2008)Contrary to the government statutory guidelines, boys were still underachieving which sparked a new government research document to be produced, Confident, Capable and Creative funding boys ach ievements. This document supports the ideas that the problem lies at the feet of the professionals in proving the incorrect suit of learning opportunities, Are we planning experiences for boys that arrive at on their interests and value their strengths as energetic learners and problem solvers or are we simply expecting them to be compliant, passive recipients of new skills and knowledge (DCSF 2007). This was also recognised by Ofsted in 2007 when it was published Ofsted has specifically highlighted the need to make early years provision more boy friendly and help them to achieve more rapidly by providing activities for learning that engages them. (Ofsted 2007).The importance of the outdoors is therefore even more crucial when looking at the future of our boys attainment. Are boys developing a negative image of themselves as learners because professionals are providing the wrong learning opportunities?So what does the outdoor environment give to boys that the inside environment d oes not? Helen Bilton has researched boys and the outdoors importantly and she writes that, The outdoor environment could play a central role in helping boys. They are more interested in movement, exploration and action and this type of activity occurs for the most part in the outdoor area. (Bilton 2002 73) Smith et al.(2003) outlines the psychological perspective on gender which concurs with Biltons views on boys that even though boys and girls share interests there is evidence of clear play preferences by 3 or 4 years old. Boys are more likely to enjoy play that is more active and need more space. (Smith et al 2003). As the outdoors is a perfect place for facilitating activities which uphold movement and multi sensory experiences it tends to support boys natural learning styles. Resources and equipment that encourage children to solve problems and overcome challenges through exploration seems to be the ideal method for engaging the interests of boys. To support these views Sarah Gharremani writes search shows the outdoors may be able to provide for boys the activities and experiences that will help them achieve. (Nursery World 2009)Although the research mostly supports the benefits of the outdoors for boys some research has shown that it can have a negative effect on the learning environment. (McNaughton 2000) argues that, During free play boys regularly use physical power to control spaces. Although this seems to be part of learning what it means to be a boy, this kind of conduct can have negative consequences for girls. The difficulty lies in being able to control the behaviour of boys in the outdoor environment and the danger lies in the fortuity of adults and children seeing the outdoor environment as being boys territory. Not only this, but there also lies the danger of reinforcing stereotypes to very young children and maybe transportation the message that active and explorative play is for boys and not for the equally curious and creative girls.Wh at is the role of the practitioner outdoors?We believe that every young person should experience the world beyond the classroom as an essential part of learning and personal development and that these experiences make a unique contribution to young children lives. (DfES 2005 11)Even though the government policy documents are constantly informing us that children are required to have access to an outdoor learning environment, it is not always as simple as just providing an outdoor area. Issues that have surfaced have been the confusion surrounding the role of the practitioner in the outside environment. Although the telling Provision of Preschool upbringing (EPPE) research identifies the outdoors as being a great place for practitioners to engage with children in sustain shared view. Sustained thinking occurs when two or more individuals work together in an intellectual way to solve a problem, clarify a concept, evaluate an activity and so on Both parties must contribute to the t hinking and it must develop and extend the understanding. (Siraj-Blatchford et al 2004). The counter argument is that the outdoor environment is supposed to provide children with the fortune for private space and opportunity to just be a child. Questions are raised about how practitioners are trained for the role of the adult in the outdoor environment and whether or not we are providing children with the correct sort of learning opportunities or do we comprise childrens learning with our actions?Working in both indoor and outdoor environments practitioners are required to provide a balance between child initiated activities and adult directed roles but not all practitioners find it golden to convert to a complete child initiated play when looking at the outdoors.Adult interaction is the hardest aspect to teach in training, knowing when to be near, to offer space, or a challenge, seems to come from within a sensitive, knowledgeable adult (Warden 200718) When teachers are used to w orking with a pre-determined curriculum, is it a simple task to ask teachers to allow the children to lead their own learning or does this type of teaching require training and more understanding? A paper written by Maynard also questions this idea when she writes any assumption that all teachers will find it easy to let go and allow children to take the lead in their learning is both simplistic and overly optimistic (Maynard 2007207) The findings of the foundation stage pi pass around phase verified these doubts to be correct as they found that practitioners were unclear as to what hardly is meant by the term active learning, outdoor classroom and even play.The role of the practitioner is so important to the success of the outdoor environment that if managed incorrectly it could have adverse effects on the setting. This view is also demonstrated when Jan White writes Practitioner attitudes, understanding and commitment, comfort, confidence and competence are all crucial aspects of boffo outdoor provision. Practitioners having a good understanding of their role outside contributes heartyly to sharing childrens pleasure in being outside. (Jan White 2008 9)It is essential therefore that adults understand the benefits and potential the outdoors has on the learning and development of young people. If practitioners do not have the understanding and enthusiasm then this will have a negative effect on the leaning potentials, it is only when outdoor play is seen as a crucial part of early years education that it will be well provided for and in turn be successful. As McMillan(1930) argues, the success of childrens learning rests with the teacher. These findings were supported by theorist Bruner (1987 cited in Bilton 2008) as he talks about the interactionist approach which places a responsibility on adults to make sure children have a partnership role. The staff role therefore involves bringing the children, environment and curriculum together. (Bruner 1987) The p resence of the adult is therefore essential as Vygotskys work on the zone of proximal development also supports a child on the edge of learning a new concept can benefit from interaction with a teacher.We as adults can therefore effect childrens development to its impairment or to good effect (Bilton 2010)Importance of Risk takingAnother issue surrounding the debate about the outdoor environment which gets discussed a lot is the concern of the potential risks of this type of environment. Is it important for practitioners to give children the opportunity to take risks and make their own mistakes and learn from them or is it our job to protect them from anything that may be seen as a potential risk? ( branchia cited in Bilton 200710) argues that childhood is becoming undermined by risk aversion and this echos a sentiment expressed by (Cunningham 2006) that adults are interfering too much with childhood. We need to give our children the opportunity to experience risk and self regulate their own safely or how else are they passage to learn these skills? The royal society for the prevention of accidents (RoSPA) argues that children need challenges, It is essential to their healthy growth and development. Children need to learn about risk, about their own capabilities and to develop the implement for judging it in controlled settings. (Cook and Heseltine 19994)The outdoor environment seems to be the perfect place to allow children the freedom to partake in potential risk taking play. Although literature around this subject is rarely seen as taking a positive attitude towards it, there have been research projects which have shown the potential links between childrens physical risk taking behaviour, the later development of risk management strategies and positive dispositions to learning have been suggested (Smith 1998 Stephenson 2003). Practitioners expect children to make all of the right choices in so many different areas of life e.g. when to be kind, when to sh are etc. So why do we feel the need to take away the opportunity to make decisions about danger and risk? Can four year olds make such informed decisions about their lives? Can over protection from risk inhibit development?It is argued that taking risks can have a positive effect on the learning development of young children. Many current researchers (Ball 2002 Gill 2007 Hughes 2001) argue for the developmental benefits of risk in the outdoors through play. Ball notes that because the future benefits of play and risk in play cannot be measured with our metaphysical models, they are not appropriately considered. But is it not risk that provides children with the opportunity to learn the important skills needed in adulthood?If we are to use the outdoor environment as a classroom to enrich the learning experience, surely we cannot put barriers on experiences which will help children to grow and develop. By providing access to the outdoor environment you can in hand provide children wi th the opportunity to take risks, but with the rising culture of fear, it proves a more difficult task than once thought. Numerous writers have claimed that there needs to be more recognition placed on the positive outcomes of risky activities such as the development of self-esteem and self- confidence. (Lindon 1999 Stephenson 2003)One element of outdoor education which emphasises its ability to fulfill these elements of child development is the forest school approach, an approach which started originally in Scandinavia but shows more evidence of the benefits of the outdoors and risk taking. What makes forest school unique is its emphasis on learning outside in the ever changing environment and the ability to let children take risks and to access risks for themselves. Not only does this environment provide children with opportunity to develop skills in risk evaluation but also build up self-esteem and confidence when encountering situations and tasks which are new and unexplored. Al though Dewey (1938,78) states that, children need teachers to decide what is safe and also developmentally safe for them, this is contradicted by a lot of research showing that if we give children the independence of their own learning and development they will become creative and confident learners in the future. Many theorists and researchers have agreed with this point and even though there maybe some negatives of providing children with risks, the benefits seem to outweigh the negatives. It is only when the environment that we set up for children enables them to be adventurous and show physical and social courage that children can begin to understand themselves and others, (Ouvry 2005)ConclusionOpinions and debates on the outdoor environment are vast and plenty with researchers and theorists studying every aspect of how and why the outdoor environment is a positive element of childrens early education. Having reviewed various sources of information it can be concluded that the o utdoors has a significant impact on boys and their learning development. By understanding more about the ways that boys learn we are able to see that the elements of the outdoor environment can support the development of boys in order for them to achieve well and improve their attainment.It would appear that a grey area in need of attention is the role of the adult in an outdoor environment. The evidence and research favors the suggestion that practitioners are there for the children as a scaffold to their learning rather than getting hard involved in any learning activities. Although this seems to be something which a lot of practitioners are unsure of, if settings are going to be able to provide an outdoor environment to its full potential, then a better understanding of the elements that work best are in need of being put in place. A better understanding on how to be a supportive adult in the outdoor environment needs to be clarified and then practitioners will be able to provid e the best possible learning experiences for young children.Risk taking is always something which will come under great testing as childrens safely is always of up most importance. However, a better understanding of the benefits of allowing children to take risks and make their own choices needs to be addressed. Unfortunately we are at risk of protecting our children from meeting any real opportunities for risk or challenge which will in turn affect their emotional and physical development. The over whelming evidence is that risk taking contributes to the personal traits and abilities of children and by not allowing them the opportunities to do this we are ultimately stemming their development. The biggest risk in the environment of young children is when there is no risk, because this unavoidably leads to risk adverse, inexperienced and unconfident young children. (Judith Horvath 2010 23)Throughout this review various aspects of childrens play has been discussed, but the one thing that seems to be echoed throughout the review is the importance of play and outdoor education. There seems to be something which the outdoor environment can provide children with that we cannot mirror in our indoor environment. Something that nature and space can give our children that we cannot replicate. Children seem to be instinctively drawn towards the outdoors. Could it be that they already have the knowledge of what this environment can provide? An environment which is a natural learning environment where children feel settled and capable. An environment where children are able to gain confidence in what they can do as well as feeling the benefits of being healthy and active. An environment which provides many opportunities to experience risk, exploration and adventure. An environment which provides a connection between the nurturing aspects of nature and human beings.Children learn through their senses, so it is of no surprise that nature can fully engage children in a way that is wonderful to behold.(Warden 2007 8)We dont stop playing because we grow old we grow old because we stop playing. (George Bernard Shaw 1925)ReferencesBooksBilton, H. (2010) Outdoor learning in the Early Years Management and Innovation Third Edition Oxon RoutledgeBruce,T. (2005) Early Childhood education, tertiary edition LondonHodder ArnoldDCSF (2008) Design for play A guide to creating successful play spaces London DCSF PublicationsDCSF (2008) Practice Guidance for the Early Years Foundation Stage NottinghamDCSFDCSF (2008) The Early Years Foundation Stage Setting the standards for learning, development and care for children from birth to five NottinghamDCSFDfES (2004) Every Child MattersChange for children London DfESDrake,J. (2004) Planning Childrens play and learning in the foundation stage LondonDavid FultonGarrick, R. (2009) Playing Outdoors in the Early Years London Continuum InternationalGill, T. (2008) Space orientated childrens policy Creating child friendly communi ties to improve children well being, Children and SocietyGleave, J (2008) Risk and Play A literature review London PlaydayIsaacs, S. (1932) The Nursery years The mind of the child from birth to six years. London RoutledgeMooney, C.G. (2000) Theories of ChildhoodAn Introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson, Piaget and Vygotsky Red Leaf PressOfsted (2003) The education of six year old in England London OfstedOfsted (2008) Early Years leading to excellence (online)Ouvry, M (2003) Exercising muscles and minds outdoor play and the early years curriculumNational Childrens BureauSiraj,Blachford, J. (2003) Supporting information communication technology in the early years BunckinghamOpen UniversityWhite, J. (2009) Playing and Learning OutdoorsMaking Provision for high quality experiences in the outdoor environment Oxon RoutledgeWarden, C. (2007)Nurture through Nature London Mind stretchersWarden, C. (2007) The potential of a puddle London Mind stretchersJournals and MagazinesEarly Years Ed ucator (2010) pickings acceptable risks Volume 12 No 7 pp.21-23Early Years Educator (2009) Boys will be boys Volume 11 No 7 pp. 27- 30Gill, H. (2007) Wild woods or urban jungle playing it safe or freedom to roam. Education 3-13, November 2007, vol. 35, no. 4, p. 321-332, ISSN 0300-4279. Hope-Gill, Austin-Rebecca, Dismore-Harriet, Hammond-Sue, Whyte-Terry.Gleave, J. (2008) Risk and Play A literature Review London PlaydayHyne, S. (2003) Play as a vehicle for learning in the foundation stage. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Student Conference, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, 10 September 2003. 2003, pp. 18.Maynard, T. (2007) Encounters with forest school and FoucaultA risky business, in education 3-13 pp.379-91Maynard, T. (2007) Learning in the outdoor environment a missed opportunity, Early Years, 27 pp.255-65Siraj,Blachford, J.(2004) Researching pedagogy in English pre schools, British educational Journal 30 pp.713-30Waite, S. (2007) Memories are made of this some reflections on outdoor learning and recall. Education 3-13, November 2007, vol. 35, no. 4, p. 333-347,Waller, T. (2007) The Trampoline Tree and the Swamp Monster with 18 heads outdoor play in the Foundation Stage and Foundation Phase. Education 3-13, November 2007, vol. 35, no. 4, p. 393-407, ISSN 0300-4279.Waters, J. (2007) Supporting the development of risk-taking behaviours in the early years an exploratory study. Education 3-13, November 2007, vol. 35, no. 4, p. 365-377, ISSN 0300-4279.

Stability over Everything :: essays research papers

Stabilitt ber alles The Transition of German and Hungarian Politics since 1989There can be little uncertainty when studying the political transition within Germany and Hungary that since 1989 there has been a change in ideology since the collapse of the communist regime in Eastern atomic number 63 and the reunification of East and West Germany. Nevertheless it must be acknowledged that the truly astonishing events of 1989/90, which even at the beginning of 1989 could not have been predicted, brought slightly the most exciting and far far-reaching changes in life and society in Germany and Hungary since 1945. Through the various paradigms Globalization, Europeanisation and Democratisation, we are able to come to an understanding of the politics in transition and also highlight and explain several key aspects of the political, economic, social and cultural life in contemporary Germany and Hungary. The trend of globalization is attracting more than and more attention and with this i s transforming the historical approach that state, society and economy are, as it were co-extensive within the same national boundaries. The international economic system, in which states draw the borderline surrounded by the domestic economy and foreign trade relations, is being metamorphosed into a transnational economy in the wake of the globalization of markets. These trends are mirrored by the rate of flow emphasis of Germany to grow as a major leader within the European due north and Hungary in their approach for acceptance by the European Union as a member. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, we have seen Germany come forward as one of the forefront leaders in the European market. From an economic perspective, globalization has brought watertight welfare gains to Germany and Europe through an enhanced international division of labour (e.g. trade and investment). Yet globalization has also exposed and intensified weaknesses in growth, investment, and foundation in Europe a nd has led to exceedingly high unemployment rates. For ten years now the German economy, has been transferring DM 150 billion in give notice payments from the West to the East. This is not a symptom of the economys weakness, but rather a symptom of strength, and is maintained by the fact that few economies in the world could do this successfully, and none is required to do so. Undoubtedly it puts an enormous strain on the German economy, but it is shouldering it well. Even though Germany has been transferring money to the East, it has still managed to register a trade surplus of DM 100 billion annually.

Character of Hamlet Essay -- Papers

Character of settlement Wer gar zu viel bedenkt wird wenig leisten -Schiller He who reflects too much will accomplish little It is impossible to attain completeness in the assessment of each ones character and more so in the case of villages, for its note are complex and mysterious. But on rigorous study, Hamlets character can be depict though partly but adequately by the above quote. Hamlet is the most famous, the most popular play in the English language. But to quote T.S.Eliot -So far from being Shakespeares masterpiece, the play is most certainly an artistic failure. And probably more people have thought Hamlet a hit of art because they found it interesting, than have found it interesting because it is a work of art. It is the Mona Lisa of literature. The grounds of Hamlets failure are not immediately obvious.T.S.Eliot in his essay Hamlet and His Problems, says this and after his analysis he concludes that in order to understand Hamlet - the play and the character - we need to understand things, which Shakespeare did not understand himself. A akin(predicate) view is aired by A.C.Bradley who says that the character of Hamlet as one can understand from the play cannot answer several questions which pertain to the logic and intellect of Hamlets deeds like his idea to pretend madness and in order to get a reasonable answer one must try record where we find the story of Amleth,the Prince of Denmark which inspired Shakespeare to write this Mona Lisa of literature. The story of Amleth is a story, which involved just the revenge of a son avenging his fathers murder. In this story, Amleth s uncle... ...ths may be, by whatever means can be held as a retributive justice against them for their own deeds. Except the deaths of king Claudius and his Queen ,all the rest happen due to their fight with the king. These deaths could have been avoided.But,once the death casts a shadow on someone, the res t is silence. Note The actual age of Hamlet is in question due to evidences base on various grounds. In my opinion the knowledge of Hamlets age can help in understanding his complex character to perfection. Bibliography 1.Tales from Shakespeare - Charles and Mary Lamb 2. Hamlet - Commentary by A.W.Verity (A.W.V) 3. Hamlet and His Problems - Essay by T.S.Eliot 4. A.C.Bradleys work on Hamlet 5. F.C.Hunts work on Hamlet referring to Bacons life 6. A Book of Quotations 7. www.hamlet.org